Although the concept of the ‘learning organisation’ has acquired paradigmatic status in recent years, there are very few approaches which help us to have a better understanding of how organisations learn. If we take a look at the few available diagnoses, the picture tends to be rather dismal. Quite in contrast to rhetorical proclamations, the learning behaviour of real organisations consists of abstinence.

By restricting learning to an increase in knowledge of rules, organisations relinquish the possibility of acquiring additional flexibility and autonomy and of getting a better understanding of their own learning behaviour. It is true that some unconventional forms of the learning required develop in niches, but precisely for that reason they lack relevance for the average organisation.

The aim of the article is to discuss possible gaps in this issue and to propose solutions. The approach is an ecological broadening of perspectives, in particular taking into consideration the strategic potential of learning regions, as a background for the emergence of additional learning option for organisations.

The paper draws on quantitative evidence and case examples of city learning from both developed and developing countries to explore selected questions raised in the literature on learning and competitiveness.  

Anecdotal and quantitative evidence suggests that a large shadow market for knowledge has already formed among cities around the world.  Case observations reviewed here suggest that the best learners are deliberate and systematic, finding or creating new knowledge, converting it to use, and storing learning experiences that draw on collective memory.  

Acquired knowledge resides in two main forms: one is hard data, stored in documents, computers, or specialized units of government.  Another is soft data stored in professional and social networks that link a wide array of actors in the community—not just staff in the city bureaucracy.

The analysis leads to a number of propositions that deserve attention and testing:  several kinds of learning systems can be observed, that the process of learning may be as important as the product in contributing to competitiveness, that policies can helpful to facilitate learning, and that a radical departure from customary policy, especially in donor institutions, may be needed to effectively meet requirements of institutional capacity building in cities of the developing world.

Andritsos Thanos, Velegrakis Giorgos Geography Department, Harokopio University Athens Greece, from 2009 onwards, became the epicenter of the global financial crisis and turned into a social laboratory with the implementation of extreme unpopular austerity measures together with the so-called fast-track mega-development projects as a “treatment” against the crisis. On the other hand, very intense social struggles arise. These struggles have their origins in different social strata, geographical scales, political views and perspectives. The international bibliography seems to focus on highlighting unilaterally only certain aspects (such as the mobilization in the squares of “aganaktismenoi”, experiments of self-organization and social solidarity, local and environmental struggles, workers' strikes, the electoral rise of the left, etc.) and lack in an overall picture and perspective. According to our view the theoretical and political questions that arise from all these struggles are: “How these local and apparently “independent” struggles contribute to a common anti-systemic political project and seek for alternatives?”; “In which way do they built different forms of democracy at different scales (local/regional/national)?”; “Are there possibilities for an establishment of different power relations?” In this context, there is a need for the academics to research all the major battles as moments in the evolution of the entire Greek society and the sociopolitical struggle within it. Therefore, this paper aims to answer the above mentioned questions by describing and analyzing the most important struggles in Greece in the years after the first memorandum and highlighting the key aspects that unify them in addition to their international importance and effect.

Eckert T., Preisinger-Kleine R., Fartusnic C., Houston M., Jucevičienė P., Dillon, B., Nemeth, B., Kleisz T., Ceseviciute, I., Thinesse-Demel J., Osborne, M., Wallin, E.

Quality in Developing Learning Cities and Regions. A Guide for Practitioners and Stakeholders

Munich, January 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037333-6

The concept of Learning Regions, Cities or Communities is very closely connected to the basic ideas of Lifelong Learning. We can find articles about the need for Lifelong Learning in the 1960s (e.g. Dahrendorf, 1965) noting that different terms meaning the same thing were used at that time (education permanente, lifelong education, permanent education etc.). International organizations such as UNESCO, the EU or the OECD played a prominent role in fostering the idea and principles of Lifelong Learning (Dohmen, 1996). In 1970 Paul Lengrand published principles of lifelong education supported by the UNESCO-initiative during the “International Year of Education”; the Faure-Report (1973) strongly recommended strengthening the relevance of informal learning and proclaimed lifelong learning as a ‘master concept’ for educational policies; and, in 1996 a year for Lifelong Learning was celebrated through an initiative of the OECD and the UNESCO.

The development of the Learning Regions-Initiatives was closely connected to these ideas (Goncalves, 2008). In 1973 there was an OECD initiative to establish ‘educating cities’. Seven cities were invited to develop strategies on prioritizing (lifelong) education: Adelaide, Edmonton, Edinburgh, Gothenburg, Kakgawa, Pittsburgh and Vienna. The objective of this event was to improve economic performance through the provision of education and learning.

In the 1980s the term ‘learning city’ became more common and this was extended to encompass 'learning communities'. People talking about learning cities were convinced that only people are able to learn but learning happens in and can be supported by cultural and social interactions. This is why and how communities learn because their members share common goals, take efforts to attain them and so seek a common understanding and create shared knowledge. In this sense learning not only leads to better economic performance; it also supports the development of society in a democratic way through social inclusion, environmentally friendly behaviour and so on. According to Goncalves (2008) the idea of learning cities in the 21st century has two key pillars: equity and sustainability. In the last decade learning generally became more and more important: as a political concept in further developing cities and regions from the bottom up and so fostering sustainable development and active citizenship; as a concept to reduce inequality in our society; and – last but not least – as a concept to support economic development.

An overview of lifelong learning developments recognises that they align with other contemporary socio-economic issues such as: the development of a knowledge economy/society, increasing globalization and individualization, sustainability and demographic change. Goncalves (2008) and Osborne (2011) provide an overview of the association between those developments and the changes in the idea of learning regions or cities. Since an important topic of the R3L+ project is quality we focus briefly on developments in the learning sciences during the last decades believing that those changes had (have) a great influence on what we understand of quality and how we define it

This handbook has been designed to help those who are concerned with the reinforcement of local cooperation, as well as building and managing the learning region or city. It is intended to help lifelong learning practitioners on promoting a common culture of quality in local networks of lifelong learning.

The handbook offers case studies of Learning regions and Cities in Europe, taking into consideration their overall strategy, aims and objectives, framework of action, network architectures and organisational structures. It in particular looks at the various ways in which partnerships are built, means and ways of participation, how goal achievement is ensured, and action taken in order to stimulate the emergence of local "learning cultures”.

This case study describes the main features of the Learning City of Dundee , Scotland, with a particular focus on:

• functioning of educational networks within the broader context of educational systems,
• collaborative patterns,
• assets and delivery of educational goods and services
• quality issues concerned.

The case study has been produced in the framework of the Grundtvig project R3L+ (Quality in developing Learning Cities and Regions).

This case study describes the main features of the Learning City and Region Kaunas, Lithuania, with a particular focus on:

• functioning of educational networks within the broader context of educational systems,
• collaborative patterns,
• assets and delivery of educational goods and services
• quality issues concerned.

The case study has been produced in the framework of the Grundtvig project R3L+ (Quality in developing Learning Cities and Regions).

This case study describes the main features of the Learning City and Region Pecs, Hungary, with a particular focus on:

• functioning of educational networks within the broader context of educational systems,
• collaborative patterns,
• assets and delivery of educational goods and services
• quality issues concerned.

The case study has been produced in the framework of the Grundtvig project R3L+ (Quality in developing Learning Cities and Regions).

This case study describes the main features of the Learning City of Limerick, Ireland, with a particular focus on:

• functioning of educational networks within the broader context of educational systems,
• collaborative patterns,
• assets and delivery of educational goods and services
• quality issues concerned.

The case study has been produced in the framework of the Grundtvig project R3L+ (Quality in developing Learning Cities and Regions).

This case study describes the main features of the Learning Region Bodensee, Germany, with particular focus on:

• functioning of educational networks within the broader context of educational systems,
• collaborative patterns,
• assets and delivery of educational goods and services
• quality issues concerned.

The case study has been produced in the framework of the Grundtvig project R3L+ (Quality in developing Learning Cities and Regions).

This case study describes the main features of the Learning Region Bucharest-Ilfov, Romania, with a particular focus on:

• functioning of educational networks within the broader context of educational systems,
• collaborative patterns,
• assets and delivery of educational goods and services
• quality issues concerned.

The case study has been produced in the framework of the Grundtvig project R3L+ (Quality in developing Learning Cities and Regions).

This case study describes the main features of the Learning Region Lundaland, Sweden, with a particular focus on:

• functioning of educational networks within the broader context of educational systems,
• collaborative patterns,
• assets and delivery of educational goods and services
• quality issues concerned.

The case study has been produced in the framework of the Grundtvig project R3L+ (Quality in developing Learning Cities and Regions).

This case study describes the main features of the German National Learning Regions Initiative, with a particular focus on:

• functioning of educational networks within the broader context of educational systems,
• collaborative patterns,
• assets and delivery of educational goods and services
• quality issues concerned.

The case study has been produced in the framework of the Grundtvig project R3L+ (Quality in developing Learning Cities and Regions).

Published in 2015 by the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL), Hamburg, and the National Institute for Lifelong Education of the Republic of Korea (NILE), Seoul | © UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning

Edited by Raúl Valdes-Cotera, Norman Longworth, Katharina Lunardon, Mo Wang, Sunok Jo and Sinéad Crowe

Enabling people to continue learning throughout their lives has become a priority for communities the world over. This is largely due to a growing awareness that lifelong learning – a holistic, inclusive and sector-wide approach to learning – is crucial not just for individuals’ well-being, but indeed for the future of society. With their high population densities and complex infrastructures, cities offer particularly favourable conditions for

making lifelong learning opportunities available to all of their citizens. Enhancing and expanding such opportunities is at the heart of the learning city approach.

This publication brings together the diverse experiences of twelve cities as they work towards the target of providing lifelong learning for all: Melton (Australia), Sorocaba (Brazil), Beijing (China), Bahir Dar (Ethiopia), Espoo (Finland), Cork (Ireland), Amman (Jordan), Mexico City (Mexico), Ybycuí (Paraguay), Balanga (Philippines), Namyangju (Republic of Korea) and Swansea (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland).